The History of Phrenology on the Web (http://www.historyofphrenology.org.uk/) By John van Wyhe Last modified 9 August 2000 Moscati, "Biographical Paper on the Character and Phrenological Organization of Dr. Spurzheim 'London Phrenological Society', Lancet, 12 Jan., 1832. pp. 494-498 LONDON PHRENOLOGICAL SOCIETY. Ms nday, January 7th, 1833. Professor ET.i.to'rsrrf'1, President. Mr. GF.()n(rR FnArrrtvar, Surgeon, of J.isson Grove, and Air. J. G. GrnefF, of For. nival's Inn, here elected members of the Society. ir115fAN-LIRE HEAD OP A MONKEY. ~I Mr. hITT.t.En, anatomy modeller, exhi• bited n mould in wax, made from the head of the monkey termed the Chimpanzee, the hear approach of which to the form of thw human tread, was remarkable. The cranium' and face approximated in an astonishing (!agree in appearance to the baked Beads of the New Zealand chiefs occasionally shown in this country.. 'i'he President observe), in fact, that the Chimpanzee came nearest in conformation of all monkeys to the human race. It has no intermaxillary bone, haq nails on its bind thumbs, and a jigamentnrn tares at the beast of the thigh-hone. The present Chimpanzee was brought to J?ng- land from Borneo, in rum, having died on the voyage. It was purchased of the captailr by Mr. L anastaff, who now possesses the skeleton. The head of this animal probably assimilate) more closely to that of man, tAan that of any Chimpanzee hitherto brought to thin country. 1ffr. WHI'r1VER presented R Copper-plate to the members, on which a medallion head of Gall was beautifully engraved by the new copying machine, to be uses! for the admission tickets of tire Society. IrI00RAI'HTCAT, PAPER ON TrIR ('ffARAf'TFR AND I'll RFNUI.O(:IC.41. ORGANIZATION OF DR. SI ttR'LH1aJt. ']'lie Marquis IVIoscATI then presenteclV the following paper to the Society, which, . Tees immediately react, and afterwards received the thanks of the members. Casts of the head ofGall, Spurzheiru, and Smitherso were on the table, WONDERFUL EVENTS OF 1832. "Qntaadr4te reritatenl rerltalis ransom cauen, 6nmanlqae Renerte uttlttate inqulrlt, etlamst all! qatndo qaoedem offenderit, recto aqit; neqne prrepotenta, rice penectrtioneru, rreqae vinoula, nee paapertAtero b:limesCat. Verlta~enim sa3pe odium parit, eed temper rerrtae set."-Gactanttua. GkteTt.talsx,-The year 1892 may justly bA styled by no Annus Memorabilia, and our posterity in looking over the events which have taken place during the course of its twelve months cannot find our definition un iust. In fact, withiii so short a period we ave experienced t great many extraor.. dintzj; iad not few unaccotirittble vicissitudes. We have seen a dreadful epidemic, hither to unknown to Europe, and still unexplored disease, commonly called Asiatic Cholera, rapidly, tad tyrannically travelling through several countries, preceded by general alarm and :consternation, accompanied by numerous victims and sufferers, and followed by the heartfelt sorrow and mourning of many families, and by the ambiguous detestation of doctors, chemists, and undertakers. Wt have seen the glorious and pest;eful triumph of the English nation counteracted "scandalous tctndalout axtiacetori of the nation. aIt of Poland, by the inquisitorial edicts df the despots of erman , and by the rant. tanned absolutism of the ~oman court. We have teen the siege of Paris,, and martial laws, and courts established by ~ouit Philip end bin ministers in the tame city, and against the tame citizens who, but two years ego, made them what they ors. We litre heard with surprise tire thun• ering but harmless report of the wohlorful iootrinarial probably, Boot rg-thieve, of whom we shall pt'obably, hear again et else valley of Jehoshaphat. We bare seen an obstinate crowned heed, with scarcely three millions of sub. jects, opposing his royal will to else die, fetes of justice and reason, and to the combinedroynlinjunctions of free of his crowned Cousins, backed by newly ewe hundred mil. lions of their supposed subjects, end by the sympathy of all civilized nations. We have been spectators of anew T'lrelaaid on the chores of Portugal, taking place between two brothers, for tire preservation of either of whom very few would coo. scientiously give a farthing. We here seen two Neapolitan princesses, --one stimulated by her ambition, excited by her motherly affection, and misguided by her partisans, promoting civil war in the south and west provinces of France, and showing in her daring enterprise greater strength of mind and greater courage then ell the mate Bourbons of Europe the other, ell of a sadden, holding in her bonds tire rains of government, and ruling over her gouty turncoat husband, threttearand tub. rtrit the monacal thd apostolical junta et Spain. We have seen Greece blessed with a new king, differing from his subjects bycountry, birth, manners, language, and religions principles, and who, being well aware That there is no possibility of reigning without' rtlonep, before he ascends his throne, has alretdy dispatched his political agents to beg for alms end support in different peat of Europe. We have seen the whole of the Boatpt(ttist party interred at Vienna in the tomb of the unfortunate son of the grasser! genius and general of modern Europe. We bare seen-b>>t were I to relate an that Gds happened within the last twelve months I fear I should become too prolii and tiresome, thereforA I hasten to the ptr• pose of my letter. Ix 1832 the literary and scientific world hive met with immense misfortunes. Eng. load has to lament the decease of the pt. triarbh of reform, the only Angle-French citizen, J6aEelY BEMTlIAM; the upright, eloquent, and liberal MACKINTOSH, the learned TENTERDEN. Great Britain, tad the whole globe, the death of the wonderful and ferule genius of Scotland, the immortal AUTHOR OP WAVErtLEr. France hoe lost tire gallant, eloquent, and putrintie General LASlencuE, the incomparable Ctt• vrxR, the industrious and laborious CHAN' PO t.LtoN, the great Orientalist ADEL Rt>,o• tAT, the famous incarnated juste-willies Cnsrmrn PEnrza, and the noble astronoMrtf LA PLACE. Italy has to deplore the lots d< the indefatigable Scenre, of the learned Antiquary IN(ittEilAM1, anti of 14lFZZOtettit, the gretitest linguist of the world. xlre phrenologists have oleo been deeply afflicted by the premature and unexpected decease of one of their best members, of one of the most zealous and most pertA• vering promoters of phrenology,-the celebrated and justly lamented Dr. Sruntnttx: Dr. GALL, of immortal memory, was tc• customed to say to pus adversaries, that the best means of ascertaining she truth tad accuracy of his doctrine, wet to study it of their own bends and casts; or on the herds and casts of well-known alrnracters. It was iti fact from this source that he de. tired the first ideas of iris system, and that afterwards, through his assiduous labourti and researches, and through multiplied observations, and experiments, he brought it to an almost mathematical certainty. It will be, therefore, very interesting to 111 the nmatduts of phrenology, and very ash fin to phrenologists, if, in examining the phrenological organization of Dr. Srotz ' lrErnt, we find that his characteristic intellectual and sentiments) faculties, is rtv4 as his animal propensities, correspond rte THE MARQUIS MOSCArt ON SPURZHEIM. Mpg ttltly pith the development, combination, Gall was at that time settled in the capital Ihd analogy of his prominent organs. of tire Austrian Empire, end attached at And here, before I go further, allow me physician to several public institutions. In to submit to your consideration the follow- the mean time, Gall hod rendered his priia remarks ;-First, that I rim chiefly, in- vats house the rendszunus of all those who detted to Dr. Gall for the honour that I wished to study craniology, and there con. hare in addressing to you my humble ob- scantly be lectured on his system. Being letiations on Dr. Spurzheim; for if Dr. the physician of Count Spltogen, Gall saw Gall bad not existed, very probably I should Spurzheim, and invited him in 1800 to one cot have known Dr. Spursheim. Secondly, of his courses, which caused his conversion. that one of the brightest geniuses of my nt• Gall, who was naturally kind to every body, dire hind, the immortal Galileo Galilei, bay. showed a particular attachment to Spurz. iq discovered some spots in the solar disc, helm, sad by degrees admitted him gratis *As not only persecuted by the crafty in~ to all his lectures, and often invited him to 1sitors of Venice, but also condemn;d by his table. When Dr. Gall was obl d to 8161 Holy Office of Rome ; however, not- leave Vienna, as Mr. Staudling, whigehad vrithslanding the infallibility of the Pope, been for several years his secretary tad the spots seen by Galilei sell remain, and assistant, would not follow him in his trill for ever remain in the sun. Should I, scientific pilgrimage, Spurzheim wet offer. th the course of my historical and phreno- ed arid accepted that situation. Be it Laid, logical inquiries on Dr. Spurzheim, tlis. to the honourof Spurzheim, that in this cir• cover in his orpnization the indication of oumatance he showed his attachment to the some of his intellectual and sentimental science, and also his disinterestedness ; for bculties in harmony with hi's rent conduct, Dr. Gall was only able to give him twelve tad thus incur the displeasure and animad. hundred florins per annum, with board end torsion of some of his moat intimate friends, lodgings, while Prince Piccolomini, to hive fellow-labourers, and almost blindadmirers, him at t private tutor in his family, made I iball be very sorry, but I moat submit to trim an offer of three thousand florins pet dry lot; and, although I am fully aware tannin. that in so doing the number of my enemies In ~ 1804, the veer in which Spurzheim will increase, and that a new foment will joined Gall, the science of crtniologp had re afforded to those who most poetically already made gre'nt progress, sad several invent behind my back, and against my of the first physiologists of Germany had teirutation, the most unaccountable stories. tested to ridicule tire system of Grill. It is, f shall not mind the ungenerous attacks of therefore, riot only Arroneous, but injurious thASe quorum sub lu6iia venenum aapitlum to the memory of Spurzheim, to assert that Art, et sub lingua labor, of dolor, and only will phrenology began to be a science when follotv the precept which Virgil, on s Simi- Spurzheimjoined Dr. Gall. And, in feet, I˘t occasion, gave to Dente in the Inferno. the expulsion of Gall from Vienna proves the contrary; far hit apostolic majesty the emperor of Austria, and the apostolic nuncio of Pius VII, tolerated and area permitted the lectures of Gall, as longae they did notnpprehend any danger; but when stray saw that the system of Gall acquired daily new supporters and followers, then they ordered him out of Vienna. Besides, from 1804 to 1807, Spurzheim was nothing else than the secretary and assistant of Gall. In 1806 I attended in IIeilderberg to the lectures of Dr. Gall, anti I was witness of the following ~histurical fact. While Gall lectured, Spurzheim handed to him the casts and objects on which Gall was to make his remarks ; in tire snore manner as when Al r. Drnnde or Dr. Faraday lectures at the Royal Institution, there is always aorttebotly to perform the mechanical part of the lecture. AIM. de la four du Pin, Vinent de St. Quintin, and Jussieu, are lining, and can confirm my, assertion. I must also add in proof of this fact another convincing at. guineas, and it is taken from tire French bfoniteur Universal, which, in announcing the arrival of Dr. Gull iu Paris, save, ~, La ion dleho a me, a InAcia dir le gentl SIR come tome forma, the non trolls (3inmmal la rims per eotfiar di vend. I have perused with scrupulous attention all the memoirs which have been lately #ubliahod on Dr. Spurzheim in the English pAriodicals, and find that the most impartial is sitar which has appeared in the dthenwurn. Spurzheim was born the last day of 1'T76, and was the son of n farmer of Long. >dlch, in the neighbourhood of 'I'reres; and titer having acquired the first rudiments of the Greek and Latin in his native tillage, having been intended for the clerical profession, at the age of fifteen was sent to the university of 'freves, where ho cultivated the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin languages, end applied himself to the study of divinity end philosophy. In 1792, when the republican armies of France overran Gerr1lstly, and took possession of 1'reves, young Sp urzbeim retired to Vienna, where ire lied in the family of Count Splangen, if not t! the tutor, certainly as superintendent of the education of the two eons of the Count. 406 PAPER AND DEBATE AT ,THE PHRENOLOGICAL SOCIETY. o6lcbre Dr. Gall, 1'auteur du systeme de crnnologio, es! arrivt: ii Paris accompagnt; de son secretaire AI. Spurzheim." It must, however, be allowed, that Spurzhoim proved a great acquisition to Dr. Gall, for lie was not only a scholar, but a very industrious Find laborious man, find usefully assisted his master in arranging and even perfecting his discoveries; and it was for this renson that when Dr. Gall undertook the publication of his great work on craniology, Spurzheim ceased to be Gall's secretary, and became his fellow-labourer. From this time, for nearly five years, Dr. Gall and Air. Spurzheim lived, studied, and worked together, but afterwards, according to what Gall told me in 182•1, some pecuniary disagreement having token place between them, Mr. Spurzheim went to Viennil to take his degree of 11LD. previous to his scientific travels, and to his visit to England, where, in 1814, be lectured with great success, and afterwards published several works on phrenology., and, by his observations and assiduous meditation, he even perfected the work of his master by adding several other organs to the craniological system. In 1817 lie returned ~to Paris and established himself in that capital, but lie had no great influence where Gall lived, professed, and lectured, and Dr. Sl:urzbeim's courses on phrenology were thinly- attended, while Gall had numerous pupils. In 182'1 Dr. Spurzheim, advanced in age, married a French widow lady, with whom lie had been acquainted a long time, :lad who had greatly, contributed by her talents to the publication of his works ; for it was Airs. Spurzheim who made the drawings and several lithoarnphies which have appeared in Dr. Spurzheim's works. Some time after the death of Alm. Spurzheim, the doctor visited Paris again, and several other cities of France, .wild in June ]list embarked for North America, with the intention of forwarding and promoting in the new world the science of phrenology, sad there, in Boston, lie paid his tribute to nature on the loth of November last. It is not right to say that Dr. Spurzheim left Europe in consequence of the death of his wife. I saw hiui and spoke to him in Paris after that melancholy event, but lie mentioned it as a philosopher anti it Christian, and appeared to me to be perfectly at ease, and quite satisfied with the decree of Providence. The propagation of phrenology was, in my opinion, the true object of his visit to America. Now let us examine his cast, which was taken by Air. De Ville in 1821. It is beautifully developed. The most prominent organs ore,-se f',, esteem, approbativeness, cautiousness, /irviness, secfetiv˘ness, destructiveness, Peguisitiyeness, constructiveness,, causality, individuality, eventuality, comparison, order-, form, and sire, all very large. Verlerntinrl, conscientious mess, 6eirevolcrlce, ideality, hope, locality, latt• gunge,and gaief;u, rather large. Combativeness, adhesiveness, inhnlutivenar, pkilnprogenitivertess, and irritation moderate. An tattueness, melody, time, number, and rliarvellousness, small. All those who hove been acquainted with Dr. 5purzheim; gild those who have perused leis works,- mast have recognised in him sound principles of religion and morality, but unstained by bigotry or superstition; and in observing his organs of veneration large and nlar',reliousnesssmall, the phrenologist will find that they perfectly agree with this part of his character. In his youth, manhood, sari advanced age, Dr. Spurzheim showed, if not an aversion, at least ti sort of indifference fir the fair sex, anti his organs or ainativeness being small, arid those of adhesiveness moderate, fully explain this propensity ; as for Dr. Spurzheim's fondness, attachment, and love for his wife, they took their source in the organs of conscientiousness, set/'-esteem, approbativeness, veneration, and acquiskimglass ; for iii marrying Mrs. Spurzheim the Doctor obeyed the dictates of all those organs. The works published by Dr. Spurzheim ore exceedingly interesting and useful for the accuracy, order,] and clearness, which reign throughout thorn, and his organs of eventuality, individualihl, constriretitKntu, causality, comparison, and order, correspond exactly with their character. It is a fact that 1)i'. Spurzheim had acquired kith facility, anti could write and spank fluently, several htnglinyes, and bit organs ofindividunlity, eventuality, causnlitv, and lnrr~tcnge, correspond with this faculty. Dr. Spurzheim was not much attached to his native land, often changed his residence, slid was fond of travelling ; and his organs of inhabitiveness and locality answer to this propensity. 1)r. Spurzheim laboured for the educt• tion and itlilrrnvement of youth, and era delighted when lie perceived their intellectual and moral amelioration, and his on, am of frerevnlence, npprobnciveness, and eons^.ierr• tiortsness, perfectly agree with his conduct on this subject. Dr. Spurzheim was very laborious, in. defatigahle, and persevering in his scieoti• fic pursuits, though sometimes he almost desliaired of obtaining success, and his orgun of firnrness,self •PSteein, npprobntivfntss, destructiveness, and hope, explain pus conduct. Dr. Spurzlleitu, it is well known, n'tt very cautious in whatever lie did, had very little physioal Courage, and was tp. ON THE CHARACTER Oh' SPUIt7,HEIM. Of puently diBident in discussing puhliclyand extemporaneously any scientific or political subject, and his organs of combativeness, motion, secretiveness, and ideality, correspond with his conduct. With regard to his secretiveness, 1 will here relate holy much this organ acted on 1)r. Spurzheim. Gall. told me, and several others, flint Dr. Spurzbeim, while he was.living in Gall's house, and dining every day with him.. applied to the stud' of the ~;nglish language for six months, and mode every preparation for his depar. lure for England, and Gall was only in-' formed of his intentions rl week before Dr. ,Spurzheim left Paris. With regard to his want of physical courage, i will here mention the following anecdotes well known, to those oho frequented the society of Gull :-11-hile Gall was lecturing at Merlin, a medical student, %,lie was adverse .lo his system, attacked 1Ir, Spurzheim one dad in the street instead of Gall, and although the student was not half so stout n man. as Spurzheim, he gave Spurzheim o violent blow ; but Spur. zheinl, instead of resisting sod repelling leis nssail:tnt, escaped precipitately., and retired to the first gnarl-house. Again; when 1)r. Gall was in Weimar, the master of the house in which be lived with Spur. zheim, wished to impose upon him; Gall refused to pay what he knew was not right. 'flip landlord having threatened to make use of violent means, and having moved towards (roll, Spurzheim, who was prnscnt, became pole, quitted flat room, and left Gall it) that predicament. At another time, while Gall's postilion was driving near n precipice, and would not stop, Gull stopped the horse, jumped out, and thus saved his own life, and those of Spurzheim and of the postilion. The poatilion resisted Gall violently, and Spnrzheim, instead of assisting Gall, took to his heels. Dr. Spurzheim was rather inclined to acquire wealth, and was not eminently generous, and his organs of ncgttisitiuene,.s proves the accuracy of my assertion. '1 must, however, soy that the character of Dr. Spurzheim. underwent s sensible alteration in this respect after his union with D1rs. Spurheim. 1'hnt lady was font] of ar;onomc, and often put a dictatorial ms. trirnollial restraint on the intended benevolent actions of tier husband. (gentlemen, from what I hate said, you see that. the science of phrenology is proved accurate in its principles compared with the character and actions of ono of its best promoters, and you also admire the celebrated Dr. Spurzheim.for his brilliant and virtuous qualities, ]rut still recognise in him n goon, for he hod his faults, and only the Suprerne Being is perfect anti fault]^ss. No. 489. Under the cost of Dr. Spurzheim in niy possession I have written fife follow in,,, Latin lines, composed be me, and con. veying my tribute to his memory : " Jlic est Spurzheim, medicos, nophiae-quo sacerdos, Qui cerebri panes omnes, arcanaqua novit, Atque facultntes mentis,sedeaque notavit; Rtnque bone humani generic sudavit, et alsit. Nodes iitque dies meditans, summoque inhere 1'erliciens systems sui sublime magistri." F. De 11Iosc1'rr. 'fhe Marquis lYlascert than rose and said he was ready to defend the views he had expressed in the paper, by a reference to the cast on the table.. Mr. BTrrNFS :flunt.nn'r, referred to thn largeness of 1)r. Spurzheim's destructiveness, and considered that it did oat square with his alleged want of physical courage. The great size of his destructiveness, ,fir„,tiesc, self-esteem, and s certain degree of combo. tivenes.s, would have induced him to make at least a show of courage, and he thought, accordingly, that the cast did oat hear out the statements relative to his running awry, Besides, the fortitude with which he withstood the innumerable and violent attacks of the press, proved that he certainly did possess very grant courage, The PRESIDENT. But on combativeness only does physical courage depend. No firmness, for instance, tcould make a anal courageous. 11I, bloscnTr. I admit Spurzheim's bold perseverance in face of the pass, anti that he lied plenty of mental courage, bat that is a very different thing from physical courage. I contend that he hogi none. The filet was notorious to all who knew him in. timately. 1 remember his being, in lla-endie's theatre when flint physiologist ~s'as lecturing. Spurzheim said' iuadvertentlv aloud, " lllngendie has the ear of a wolf, f IA says it is the pharynx anti it is not the liharynx." Dlngemlio imnl'cliatcly caller] oat, " Dr, Spurilaeim, go oat of the school ' de part." Spurzheiul scent instantly,"Mr. 13unt.owt:. Ilnt s man with such good perceptive powers and reflective faculties, n'ould not ho so readily frightened at a show of danger as is alleged, and his rcrtat destructiveness, and not mean cornbativenesr, ' fipnrzhcim's menial cournue most have arisen from n conviction lhnt he had truth oil his sirte (or, in othrr words, strength), and was sate of victory in asci>ntilic encounter. Ilat lie could oat have possecsed confidence, in his personal prowess, asxt heir; uncertain of snerr•ss in physical combat, or on nn occasion that threatened bodily dnnqer, ryas a coward,-and Red from its approach.-ltrp, 2 h 498 SUDDEN DISSATISFACTION OF THE BATS world prevent him from actually running away on slight occasions. The PRESIDENT. But that argument is disproved by the fact of his repeated flights. M. MOSCATt. And destructiveness, moreover, does not give courage. The tiger bas immense destructiveness, yet a sudden start at him, when be is about to attack, will snake him turn gaits away, though it may, be only for a time. But a miserable monkey, which has moderate destructiveness and great combativeness, will fly, at you in a moment if slapped at. Destructiveness, then, does not, and combativeness does, give physical courage, and Spurzheim. was an illustration of it. Mr. HVnt.OWE. I disagree with that statement. The proofs of cowardice not having occurred under the Marquis's own observation, I dispute them, and refer to the cast in preference, considering its organization not to justify the charge of want, of physical courage. His great love of approbation would excite any man with such destructiveness to a show of valour, though he might not continue in danger, or in a combat long. AI: 11'Ioseerr. But at Berlin, where attacked bl the student, no one was user to e=cite hta the of approbatiou. Gall had great combativeness and corresponding courage. Mr. DaEVI. The common doctrine of phrenology is that destructiveness does not impart courage. Destructiveness gives rise to venom, sarcasm, and spite, in the disposition. If what bar. Burlowe advances re-. apeeting the organ of destructiveness be true, Drs. Gall and' Spurzbaim have taught us erroneous doctrines. . Mr. BORLOIYB. It is mostprobatlle that a sense of the high station of Spurzheim would not allow of his returning'tbe attack of the student, but, kept him from retorts on such occasions. D2. MOSGATI, But Spurzheim at that time was only plain " Mr.", the mere secretary of Gall, with 1200 florins a-year. The event occurred in 1804. His fame all came afterwards. ' DZr. BI1RLOwB. Yes, but his self-esteem was large enough to make him think himself then a great man. M. Mo3CATI. Ay, but great self-esteem existing without cause is allied to madness. It would be so in a scavenger. It was in a beggar that Dr. Gall first remarked the organ of self-esteem. Dr. DioonE. According to, the doctrines of phrenolog, we ought not, where combativeness is' deficient, to expect other orFans to give birth to courage. Spurzheim is s case in proof. Beairlea, destructiveness will never excite a man to commence a con= Mr. I3UnLOWE. I still deny the wantof courage in Spurzheim. The PRE9tD8NT. Then (3a11 must ban told untruths. His want of courage mess have been very great, for his firmness ad adhesiveness, though so large, were insuffi- cient to make him aid Gall when attackei by the landlord. Gall's organ of courag% on the other hand, eras exceedingly great, and his acts corresponded with its eise: I remember being in Paris, staying at Gull's residence one night, when Gall thought the house had been broken open and that rob- bers were in it. His wife implored bias to keep from the danger of meeting theta, but without avail, for he went all over the house instantly, brandishing a poker about, and seeking thieves, whom, however, 6e could nowhere find, though the doors were all discovered open. With reference the want of amntive propensities in Spurs, beam, I .would request the members to I span the back of the beads in the casts of, Spurzheim, and Smithers the now on the table. The latter was an iia•- dividual of extreme lust, and it was welt' known had two or three women in keepia˘, althoegh a married man. ' Spurzheim the ears can be ~ the greatest ease by the tl from behind, when grasped across the or- gan of am atiuentss, in Smithery the eicpad• j ed hand cannot reach them by more tbu ft inch, although the head is much tmaVlt, than that of Dr. Spurzheim. 1'he'meetibg was then adjourned. Scanned by John van Wyhe http://www.historyofphrenology.org.uk/ 2000 This work may be copied freely by individuals for personal use, research, and teaching (including distribution to classes) as long as this statement of availability is included in the text. It may not be converted to another format, altered or re-posted without the written consent of John van Wyhe. Use with acknowledgement.